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Before the arrival of European settlers, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples inhabited most areas of the Australian continent. Each people spoke one or more of hundreds of separate languages, with lifestyles and religious and cultural traditions that differed according to the region in which they lived.

Adaptable and creative, with simple but highly efficient technology, Indigenous Australians had complex social systems and highly developed traditions reflecting a deep connection with the land and environment. Asian and Oceanic people had contact with Australia's Indigenous peoples for thousands of years before the European expansion into the Eastern Hemisphere. Some formed substantial relationships with communities in northern Australia.

European contact and settlement

In 1606, the Spanish explorer Luis Vaez de Torres sailed through the strait that separates Australia and Papua New Guinea. Dutch explorers charted the north and west coasts and found Tasmania. The first British explorer, William Dampier, landed on the northwest coast in 1688. But it was not until 1770 that his countryman, Captain James Cook, in the Endeavour, extended a scientific voyage to the South Pacific in order to chart the east coast of the continent that had become known as New Holland, and claimed it for the British Crown.

The American war of independence shut off that country as a place to transport convicts, requiring Great Britain to establish a new penal colony. Sir Joseph Banks, the President of the Royal Society, had sailed as a naturalist with Captain Cook, and suggested Australia for this purpose.

The First Fleet of 11 ships arrived at Botany Bay in January 1788. Governor Phillip preferred Sydney Harbour and the date he landed in the Harbour, 26 January, is now commemorated as Australia Day. The First Fleet carried 1500 people, half of them convicts. Robert Hughes' The Fatal Shore (1987) is a classic book on the convict system. Hughes suggests that the penal system had lasting effects on Australian society. About 160 000 convicts were sent to the Australian continent over the next 80 years.

The wool industry and the gold rushes of the mid-19th century provided an impetus to free settlement. Scarcity of labour, the vastness of the bush and new wealth based on farming, mining and trade all contributed to the development of uniquely Australian institutions and sensibilities. At the time of European settlement in 1788 it is estimated there were at least 300 000 Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders in Australia. European settlement involved the displacement and dispossession of Indigenous peoples. It disrupted traditional land management practices and introduced new plants and animals into fragile Australian ecosystems.

A nation is born

At the beginning of the 20th century, Australia was an open and democratic 'new world' society. In the absence of a strongly defined aristocracy or ruling class, there was a sense that one person was as good as another. It was commonly held that people made what they could of themselves, given their abilities.

The Commonwealth of Australia was formed in 1901 through the proclamation of the Constitution for the Federation of six states. The founders of Federation believed that they were creating something new and were concerned to avoid the pitfalls of the old world. They wanted Australia to be harmonious, united and egalitarian. They had progressive ideas about human rights, observance of democratic procedures and the value of a secret ballot. They drew the line on matters of race, however; one of the first acts of the new Commonwealth Parliament was to pass the Immigration Restriction Act 1901, which ensured that immigrants would be of primarily European origin. (The 'White Australia' policy was gradually dismantled after World War II until by the mid-1970s it was totally abolished. Australia now has a non-discriminatory migration policy.) Numerous diverse links with Britain existed, which many people continued to regard as 'the mother country'. Australia's constitutional links with Britain have been progressively loosened since that time. The great champion of Federation was Sir Henry Parkes, who believed that Australia was ready for unity because of 'the vigour, the industry, the enterprise, the foresight, and the creative skill of its people'.

The European population at the time of Federation was 3.8 million people of whom half lived in capital cities. Three-quarters had been born in Australia, the great majority of English, Scottish or Irish descent. Generally, they enjoyed a higher standard of living than their relatives in Britain. From 1900 to 1914 great progress was made in developing Australia's agricultural and manufacturing capacities, and in setting up institutions for government and social services.

The impact of war

World War I had a devastating impact on Australia. In 1914 the male population of Australia was less than 3 million, yet almost 400 000 of those volunteered to fight in World War I. As many as 60 000 of those who volunteered never came back, and tens of thousands more were wounded, many very seriously. Australians have inherited strong traditions from the war years. None is more special or treasured in the Australian ethos than the 'Anzac' tradition of courage, a tradition forged at Gallipoli in Turkey in 1915. Anzac Day, 25 April, is now a national day of commemoration of the sacrifice of Australians in all wars in which they have fought.

'In the end ANZAC stood and still stands for reckless valour in a good cause, for enterprise, resourcefulness, fidelity, comradeship and endurance that will never admit defeat. ' - World War I historian Charles Bean

The period between the two world wars was one of uncertainty and instability as large numbers of servicemen sought to reconstruct their lives. Social and economic divisions widened and became more pronounced during the hard years of the Depression in the 1930s when many Australian financial institutions failed. World War II was a difficult, but in some respects empowering, event in Australian history. Australian forces made a significant contribution to the Allied victory in Europe and in Asia and the Pacific. The generation that fought in World War II and survived came out of the war with a sense of pride in Australia's capabilities.

Geographical position

Australia is located southeast of Asia, and is the only country in the world to occupy a single continent. It is bordered by the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean, the Tasman Sea, the Coral Sea and the Arafura Sea. The nearest country is New Zealand. The Australia continent and the nearby island of Tasmania, form the sixth largest country on earth, with a total area of 7,686,850 sq km. This large area is populated by only 19 million people, making Australia the most sparsely populated continent after the Antarctica. Australia consists of six states and two territories.

The only State in Australia that is not found on the mainland is Tasmania. It is an island to the south of Australian mainland and is one of the most mountainous islands on earth. Tasmania's climate is temperate and the island is covered in wilderness.

Australia is the lowest, flattest and, apart from Antarctica, the driest of the continents.

The capital of Australia is Canberra. This city was chosen as the site of the new capital city as a compromise between Sydney and Melbourne, who both competed for this title.

Climate

The climate in Australia is varied and ranges from tropical to sub alpine.

Australia is also the driest inhabited continent on earth, but the eastern seaboard where the majority of the population is concentrated, is a lush and fertile area, with a climate ranging from temperate to tropical. The main mountain range is known as the Great Dividing Range has an area known as the Snowy Mountains, or otherwise known as the Australian Alps. This area actually receives snow than Switzerland, and is the only area suitable for skiing in Australia.

Most of the continent receives more than 3,000 hours of sunshine a year, or nearly 70% of the total possible.

The southwest corner of Western Australia has a Meditarranean climate and the Northern regions of this continent have areas of Rainforest and below that are large areas of savanna grasslands. Tasmania, the island state in the south has large areas of temperature wilderness and steep mountains.

The climate of Australia varies greatly. The climate ranges from tropical (monsoonal) in the north to temperate in the south.

People

Australia's native inhabitants arrived about 40,000 years ago. Today, tribal aborigines lead a settled traditional life in remote areas of northern, central, and western Australia.

For generation most settlers came from the British Isles, and the people of Australia are still predominatly of British or Irish origin. Since the end of World War II, however, the population has more than doubled; non-European immigration, mostly from the Middle East, Asia and Latin America, has increased significantly since 1960.

Flora and fauna

The dry, desert-like plains of the Australian outback cover more than two-thirds of the continent. Much of the region receives less than 250 mm of rainfall a year. Although the rains may come at any time of the year, there are often long periods of drought, which make it difficult for animals to survive.

Many of the animals avoid the heat of the day by staying in their burrows, since it is cooler and damper underground. Some small animals sleep underground right through the hottest summer months. This is called aestivation. Many outback animals can survive with little or no water. Their bodies are adapted to store water from their food and to lose very little water in their urine. A number of animals have long hind feet to help them move rapidly and find what little food is available.

There are many bizarre animals and birds in Australia:

Koala, Red kangaroo, Wild dog Dingo, Emu, Huge burrow, Huge lizard, Spiny coat, Numbat, Raggiana's bird of paradise and many others.

Government

The system of government was based on a written constitution approved by the British Parliament and reflected the political traditions of Europe and North America.

Australia is an independent sovereign nation within the Commonwealth. Queen Elizabeth II is formally Queen of Australia. The representative of the English queen is the formal head government structure.

The Australian Parliament and government are responsible for all matters of national interest. Six state governments complement activities of the national government on a state level. Four political parties are represented in the Australian Parliament - the Liberal Party, the Australian Labor party, the National Party of Australia and the Australia Democrats.

Economy

Australia has a prosperous western-style capitalist economy. Rich in natural resources, Australia is a major exporter of agricultural products, consumer goods and equipment, minerals, metals, and fossil fuels. The country buys abroad farm equipment, office equipment and other goods.

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